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Choose the tractor that can complete your terminal’s actual work schedule—not the one with the most attractive range, energy, or automation claim on paper. Compare electric and diesel models against the same loads, moves, shifts, and uptime requirements, then assess charging or refueling, infrastructure, workforce fit, automation readiness, emissions priorities, and total cost as separate but connected decisions.
Start with the work cycle, not the powertrain
An electric autonomous yard truck and a diesel autonomous yard truck may address the same material-handling job, but they do not have the same energy requirements or infrastructure dependencies. Autonomy does not make those differences disappear. Keep two decisions distinct: whether the tractor fits the fleet’s work and whether the automation system is ready to perform that work safely and reliably at your site.
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Build the comparison around one representative operating cycle for each tractor class. Record what the vehicle moves, how often it couples and uncouples, how far it travels, where it waits, and how many hours and shifts it is expected to cover. Include the real route: gradients, tight turns, crossings, narrow lanes, surface conditions, and interactions with pedestrians, manually driven vehicles, and other equipment. A model that can move a required load may still be a poor fit if its turning behavior, visibility, or operating availability does not match the yard.
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- Schedule: shift start and end times, breaks, peak periods, planned idle time, handovers, and consecutive shifts.
- Availability: required units in service, allowable downtime, spare equipment, and recovery procedures if a truck or its energy supply is unavailable.
- People and automation: driver or remote-supervisor responsibilities, training, visibility, exception handling, and labor arrangements.
Use the same definitions for both powertrains. For example, do not compare electric energy use per hour with diesel fuel use per shift and infer a cost advantage without converting both to a common operational basis and applying local energy prices, losses, and demand charges. Likewise, a comparison of one vehicle’s best-case range with the other vehicle’s average workday is not a matched evaluation.
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What published energy figures can—and cannot—tell you
A 2022 SAE International study, “Performance and Activity Characteristics of Zero Emission Battery-Electric Cargo Handling Equipment at a Port Terminal,” reported average energy use of 15.2 kWh per hour for one electric yard tractor and 65.9 kWh per hour for its diesel counterpart at two Port of Long Beach terminal locations. The study also reported that the electric equipment typically operated about five hours per day and generally could provide operating hours comparable to diesel over a typical eight-hour shift.
Those results are useful evidence that energy use can differ substantially in a port-terminal application; they are not a forecast for every tractor, shift, terminal, or model year. In particular, the reported daily operating pattern should not be read as a universal five-hour runtime limit. The study describes the tested equipment and its observed activity, not the maximum capability of all electric yard tractors. Fleet operators should ask vendors to demonstrate energy consumption on their own duty cycle and record the measurement period, loads, ambient and operating conditions, and whether charging losses are included.
For a procurement trial, track both energy and completed work. Depending on the fleet’s data capability, normalize consumption by operating hour, move, shift, or another measure that reflects output. Record idle and waiting time consistently, since a vehicle can use energy without moving freight. Keep the raw readings as well as the normalized figures so that an apparently efficient result can be checked against actual hours, moves, and payloads.
Can an electric yard truck cover the planned shifts?
There is no universal answer to “how long can it run before charging?” Runtime depends on the vehicle’s usable battery capacity, energy consumption under the site’s work cycle, charging opportunities, and any operating reserve the fleet requires. A vendor’s stated range is not a substitute for a shift plan that includes your loads, routes, waiting time, and back-to-back work.
Make a shift-by-shift energy schedule before selecting a charging strategy. For every unit, identify when it can be connected, how long it will remain connected, whether another truck needs that charger at the same time, and what happens if the connection or charger is unavailable. Include end-of-shift state of charge and the reserve needed to complete work or move the tractor to a safe recovery location. If the schedule only works when every charging window is used perfectly, test that vulnerability rather than assuming it away.
The California Energy Commission’s Port of Los Angeles advanced yard tractor project described five BYD Model 8Y electric tractors designed around customer requirements. The project specified comparable range, lifting-capacity, and maximum-speed requirements relative to diesel and treated overnight charging as an important accommodation. These are project design and specification details, not proof that every requirement was met in every operating circumstance.
A separate California Energy Commission report on a Long Beach transition demonstration shows why charging access and shift coverage need practical validation. Participating terminals did not retain the tested electric tractors after the demonstration. One operator reported that limited battery capacity and unavailable or unused opportunity charging kept the equipment from covering two shifts. The report also recorded concerns about accelerator sensitivity, the seat, instruments, and ergonomics. In that project, the vehicles could pull loads consistent with rail operations and had comparable acceleration, speed, and maneuverability to the diesel baseline. These observations describe that particular demonstration; they should prompt targeted questions about current equipment, not be treated as a verdict on every electric yard tractor.
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Diesel refueling usually takes minutes, while recharging can consume several hours, depending on energy used and the limits of both the charger and the vehicle. NACFE’s terminal-tractor report emphasizes that charging duration varies with those factors. The practical question is not simply how quickly a charger can deliver power in ideal conditions. It is whether the fleet can supply the required energy during the time and at the locations when each truck is available.
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| Factor | Electric tractor | Diesel tractor |
|---|---|---|
| Energy access | Charging equipment, vehicle acceptance limits, connection availability, and electrical capacity must align with the work schedule. | Fuel storage and refueling access must support the operating schedule; refueling itself generally takes minutes. |
| Time away from work | Depends on the energy depleted, charger power, vehicle limits, and the length and availability of charging windows. | Refueling is relatively brief, but other planned and unplanned downtime still affects availability. |
| Site dependencies | May require charger installation, grid capacity, electrical work, suitable parking and cable access, and maintenance access. | Requires an appropriate fuel-supply and refueling arrangement for the operation. |
| Failure planning | Plan for an unavailable charger, blocked connection, queue, or electrical outage, and define fallback coverage. | Plan for fuel-supply disruption, refueling access problems, and vehicle breakdowns. |
Before ordering electric units, map charger positions onto the yard layout. Check that parking and cable reach work with vehicle movements, that a truck can connect without obstructing traffic, and that maintenance staff can access the equipment. Estimate queueing when several vehicles need the same charging period. Confirm the utility’s available capacity and the scope, timing, and cost of any upgrades with the relevant providers; do not assume that an existing electrical connection can support a fleet charging plan.
Specify the charger and tractor together. A charger’s rated output alone does not establish the actual charging rate: the vehicle’s acceptance limit and conditions at the site also matter. Ask for the expected charging profile in the intended configuration and define how the fleet will monitor charger status, connection failures, and energy delivered. Include connection standards and service responsibilities in the procurement documents so that vehicle, charging, and maintenance plans are not left as separate assumptions.
Build resilience into the operating plan. Decide how many spare vehicles or charging connections are needed, how work will be reassigned during a charger outage, and who can diagnose and restore the system. For a mixed fleet, determine whether diesel units can cover electric-truck duties during an interruption and whether that fallback is available on every shift that needs it. Those choices affect uptime and cost even if they are not reflected in a vehicle’s advertised specifications.
Evaluate autonomy independently from propulsion
An autonomous feature set is not a single measure of readiness. Establish the operating design domain—the routes, traffic, speeds, weather or visibility conditions, and tasks in which the system is meant to operate—and identify where human supervision or intervention remains necessary. A tractor validated for controlled movements in one terminal should not be assumed ready for unrestricted operation elsewhere.
Ask how the system handles mixed traffic, narrow-lane manoeuvring, lane changes, reverse parking, coupling tasks, blocked routes, unexpected obstacles, and communication or sensor failures. Require clear descriptions of site acceptance testing, safety validation, supervision, cybersecurity, fallback behavior, incident escalation, and vendor support. Define which party is responsible for changes to routes, markings, maps, or other site conditions after commissioning.
Kalmar’s AutoTT information describes a partnership with Forterra, integration of the AutoDrive platform with a factory-built drive-by-wire system, customer pilots, and a phased availability plan in which electric variants follow the initial autonomous tractor. This is manufacturer-stated development and rollout information; schedules and availability can change, so confirm the current product status, supported configurations, and deployment commitments directly before procurement.
APM Terminals reported on April 2, 2026 that ten electric automated terminal tractors were on site at Maasvlakte II, with another batch beginning site acceptance testing and a planned fleet of 30. APM said the first five had completed site acceptance testing under controlled operational conditions, including scenarios such as mixed traffic, narrow-lane manoeuvring, lane changes, reverse parking, and endurance runs. This is a deployment update from one terminal, not evidence of unrestricted public-road autonomy or a universal measure of commercial maturity.
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For a fleet decision, request evidence at the level that matches the proposed operation. A pilot, a development roadmap, and a completed site acceptance test answer different questions. Record which tasks have actually been validated at your site, what operating limits apply, what remains supervised, and what needs to be demonstrated before expanding beyond a trial area.
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Compare maintenance, uptime, and workforce fit
Do not assume that electric propulsion automatically produces a specific maintenance saving or that diesel maintenance costs will be the same across fleets. The available published material does not establish a directly comparable current purchase price, matched lifecycle cost, warranty comparison, or universal maintenance-savings figure for electric and diesel autonomous yard tractors. Treat these as quote- and site-dependent inputs, and ask each supplier for a written scope, assumptions, and service commitments.
Compare scheduled maintenance, expected parts availability, technician training, service response, and the support arrangements for both the tractor and its automation equipment. Ask what maintenance work can be performed on site, what requires specialist support, how long common repairs are expected to take, and whether service coverage applies during all operating shifts. Include charging hardware and automation sensors or controls in the maintenance plan where relevant rather than evaluating only the vehicle chassis.
Workforce fit can affect productivity and acceptance even when a truck meets its headline performance specifications. Have the people who will drive, supervise, maintain, or recover the vehicles take part in the evaluation. Assess visibility, seat and control comfort, accelerator response, instrument layout, cab access, and training requirements. For automated operations, include the work of remote supervisors and exception handlers: automation may change task allocation, but the site still needs a defined process for situations the system cannot resolve.
Set acceptance criteria before a trial begins. They might include completed moves per shift, availability, charging or refueling time, energy or fuel consumed, intervention frequency, task completion under representative traffic, and user-reported ergonomic issues. The fleet should specify its own thresholds rather than borrowing a vendor target or another terminal’s outcome. Keep the measurement window and operating conditions with the results so that a favorable period is not mistaken for a guarantee.
Set an honest emissions boundary
Battery-electric tractors have no tailpipe emissions at the point of use. That statement does not quantify emissions from electricity generation, battery or vehicle manufacturing, or the full equipment lifecycle. State whether an emissions comparison is tailpipe-only or lifecycle-based, and use an appropriate, explicit method if the fleet needs a broader carbon comparison.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency lists replacing older yard trucks with either Tier 4 diesel or all-electric trucks among port cargo-handling strategies. It notes that benefits vary by port, fleet, local air quality, exposure, and priorities, and advises upgrading the oldest equipment with the highest annual hours first when usage data is available. The practical implication is to compare each replacement option with the equipment it would displace and the local objective—such as reducing tailpipe pollution near a sensitive area—rather than treating “electric versus diesel” as a complete emissions analysis.
Build a comparable cost model before requesting approval
A fair financial comparison covers more than the tractor purchase order. Obtain written, configuration-matched quotes for the vehicle, automation package, charging equipment or fuel arrangement, site and utility work, service, and warranty. Where a supplier does not state an item, record it as an open cost rather than treating it as included.
| Cost or value input | What to include in the comparison | Evidence to request |
|---|---|---|
| Vehicle and automation | Tractor configuration, autonomous equipment, commissioning, training, and any recurring software or support charge. | Written quote with included equipment, assumptions, exclusions, and delivery or commissioning scope. |
| Infrastructure | Chargers, electrical work, utility upgrades, trenching, parking changes, and maintenance access. | Site-specific installation scope and utility requirements, with responsible parties identified. |
| Energy | Measured electricity use and local tariff structure, including demand charges and charging losses; compare against measured fuel use and local fuel costs. | Duty-cycle data and explicit rate assumptions for the period being modeled. |
| Availability | Downtime, spare units, fallback coverage, charging queues, and the value of work delayed or reassigned. | Service commitments, planned maintenance assumptions, and the fleet’s own operational records. |
| Ownership horizon | Warranty, maintenance, financing, residual value, and expected service life. | Comparable written terms for the same evaluation period and operating assumptions. |
Calculate cost per completed move or another unit of work that matters to the operation, not just cost per hour. Use matched assumptions about annual utilization, shifts, energy prices, fuel prices, uptime, financing, and service life. Show a range if uncertain inputs can materially change the result, and identify which assumptions drive that range. The available evidence does not support a universal claim that either propulsion type has lower lifecycle cost.
Quick Recap
A practical procurement sequence
- Document the baseline. Use fleet records to define loads, moves, routes, hours, shifts, idle time, fuel use, downtime, and annual utilization for the equipment being replaced or supplemented.
- Set operational requirements. Specify payload, speed, maneuverability, shift coverage, availability, route constraints, and any two-shift or consecutive-shift requirement. Separate required features from preferences.
- Define the autonomy operating domain. Mark where the tractor is expected to operate, the traffic and tasks it must handle, the required level of supervision, and the conditions that require a human fallback.
- Map energy infrastructure to the schedule. For electric options, obtain the vehicle’s charging limits, calculate charging windows against the shift plan, assess utility capacity and charger placement, and document outage and queue contingencies. For diesel options, confirm refueling access and fuel-supply arrangements.
- Request matched proposals. Ask suppliers to quote comparable tractor capability, automation scope, commissioning, support, warranty, and infrastructure. Require assumptions and exclusions in writing.
- Trial against agreed acceptance criteria. Test representative tasks and traffic conditions, record energy or fuel use alongside completed work, and log downtime, interventions, charging access, and operator feedback.
- Model total cost and emissions with stated boundaries. Use local rates and fleet utilization, disclose unresolved assumptions, and distinguish point-of-use emissions from a lifecycle comparison.
- Make a staged deployment decision. Expand only after the vehicle, charging or refueling plan, maintenance coverage, workforce procedures, and autonomy safety case meet the fleet’s requirements.
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